Breast milk is nature's the most perfect food. It contains all the proteins,lipids,carbohydrates,trace elements required for infant development,as well as inorganic substances such as nitrite and nitrate. Comparison to infant formula,breast milk is rich in nitrite,especially colostrum,which has important physiological functions for the growth and development of newborns. Recent data showed that the difference between nitrite content in breast milk and infant formula may be the cause of some health differences between breast fed and formula fed infants. This paper reviewed the research results of nitrate and nitrite in breast milk and their effects on infant health,that provided some guidance for people to reunderstand the role of nitrate and nitrite in breast milk and infant formula.
[1] 丁晓雯,柳春红.食品安全学[M].北京:中国农业出版社,2011.
[2] Binkerd E F,Kolari O E.The history and use of nitrate and nitrite in the curing of meat[J]. Food Cosmet Toxicol,1975,13:655-661.
[3] Tannenbaum S R,Fett D,Young V R,et al.Nitrite and nitrate are formed by endogenous synthesis in the human intestine[J]. Science,1978,200:1487-1488.
[4] Lundberg J O,Weitzberg E,Cole J A,et al.Nitrate,bacteria and human health[J]. Nature Reviews Microbiology,2004,2(7):593-602.
[5] Bryan N S,Loscalzo J.Nitrite and nitrate in human health and disease[M].New York:Humana Press,2011.
[6] Kevil C G,Kolluru G K,Pattillo C B,et al.Inorganic nitrite therapy:historical perspective and future directions[J]. Free Radical Biology and Medicine,2011,51:576-593.
[7] Gartner L M,Morton J,Lawrence R A,et al.Breastfeeding and the use of human milk[J].Pediatrics,2005,115(2):496-506.
[8] Greer F R. Shannon M.Infant methemoglobinemia:the role of dietary nitrate in food and water[J]. Pediatrics, 2005,116(3):784-786.
[9] G. M.McKnight,C. W. Duncan,C. Leifert,et al. Dietary nitrate in man:friend or foe?[J].British Journal of Nutrition,1999,81(5):349-358.
[10] Fan A M,Steinberg V E.Health implications of nitrate and nitrite in drinking water:an update on methemoglobinemia occurrence and reproductive and developmental toxicity[J]. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology,1996,23(1):35-43.
[11] Power G G,Bragg S L,Oshiro B T,et al.A nobel method of measuring reduction of nitrite-induced methemoglobinapplied to fetal and adult blood of humans and sheep[J]. Journal of Applied Physiology,2007, 103:1359-1365.
[12] Kross B C,Ayebo A D,Fuortes L J.Methemoglobinemia:Nitrate toxicity in rural America[J]. American family physician,1992,46(1):183-188.
[13] Authority E F S. Nitrate in vegetables: scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain[J]. EFSA Journal,2008,289:1-79.
[14] Johnson C J,Kross B C.Continuing importance of nitrate contamination of groundwater and wells in rural areas[J]. American Journal of Industrial Medicine,1990,18(4):449-456.
[15] Hord N G,Ghannam J S,Garg H K.,et al.Nitrate and nitrite content of human,formula,bovine,and soy milks:implications for dietary nitrite and nitrate recommendations[J]. Breastfeeding Medicine,2011, 6:393-399.
[16] Berens P D,Bryan N S.Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease[M].Switzerland:Humana Press,2017.
[17] Dusdieker L B,Stumbo P J,Kross B C,et al.Does increased nitrate ingestion elevate nitrate levels in human milk?[J]. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 1996,150:311-314.
[18] Greer F R,Shannon M.Infant methemoglobinemia:the role of dietary nitrate in food and water[J]. Pediatrics, 2005,116:784-786.
[19] Neville M C.Physiology of lactation[J]. Clinics in Perinatology,1999,26(2):251-279.
[20] Ohta N,Tsukahara H,Ohshima Y,et al.Nitric oxide metabolites and adrenomedullin in human breast milk[J]. Early Human Development, 2004,78(1):61-65.
[21] Iizuka T,Sasaki M,Oishi K, et al.Non-enzymatic nitric oxide generation in the stomachs of breastfed neonates[J]. ACTA Paediatria, 1999,88(10):1053-1055.
[22] Cekmen M B,Balat A,Balat O,et al.Decreased adrenomedullin and total nitrite levels in breast milk of preeclamptic women[J]. Clinical Biochemistry, 2004,37(2):146-148.
[23] Heinig M J.The American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations on breastfeeding and the use of human milk[J]. Journal of Human Lactation,1998,14(1):2-3.
[24] Petersson J,Carlstrom M,Schreiber O,et al.Gastroprotective and blood pressure lowering effects of dietary nitrate are abolished by an antiseptic mouthwash[J]. Free Radic Biology and Medicine, 2009,46(8):1068-1075.
[25] Ahdrew J,Webb,Nakul Patel,et al.Acute blood pressure lowering,vasoprotective,and antiplatelet properties of dietary nitrate via bioconversion to nitrite[J]. Hypertension,2008,51(3):784-90.
[26] Neu J,Walker WA.Necrotizing enterocolitis[J]. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2011,364(3):255-64.
[27] Dominguez K M,Moss R L.Necrotizing enterocolitis[J].Clinics Perinatology,2012,39(2):387-401.
[28] Gephart S M,McGrath J M,Effken J A,et al.Necrotizing enterocolitis risk[J]. Advance in Neonatal Care,2012,12(2):77-89.
[29] Yazji I,Sodhi C P,Lee E K,et al.Endothelial TLR4 activation impairs intestinal microcirculatory perfusion in necrotizing enterocolitis via eNOS-NO-nitrite signaling[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,USA,2013,110(23):9451-9456.
[30] Fulhan J,Collier S,Duggan C.Update on pediatric nutrition:breastfeeding,infant nutrition,and growth[J].Current Opinion in Pediatrics,2003,15(3):323-32.
[31] Shu X O,Linet M S,Steinbuch M,et al.Breast-feeding and risk of childhood acute leukemia[J].Journal of the National Cancer Institute,1999,91(20):1765-1772.
[32] A Singhal.Early nutrition and long-term cardiovascular health[J].Nutrition Reviews, 2006,64(5):s44-s49.
